Rivers in Indian Literature 5 The Brahmaputra

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Being a masculine river (Nada), the Brahmaputra literally means ‘Son of Brahma’, one of the Hindu Holy Trinity. Even though the river was first called Lauhitya; the name, as we know it, finds first mention around the 10th century in the Kalika Purana. But, the very first narration was in the Srishti Khanda of the fifth book of the Padma Purana.

Kalika Purana narrates how Lord Bramha was impressed by the piety of a couple, Shantanu and Amogha. He deemed that Amogha had all the requisites to bring forth His own son, whom He wanted humanity to benefit from. Shantanu placed Lord Brahma’s son in the midst of four mountains, from where the boy assumed the form of the river Brahmaputra.

We could read in the Padma Purana that Lake Brahmakunda was the original source of the Brahmaputra. Lord Parasurama had axed His own mother to death, upon orders from His father. The axe got stuck to His hand and He set forth on a pilgrimage, ultimately reaching the lake, where He cut a channel for the rising waters to flow down. From the Brahmakunda, waters entered Lake Lohita in the Kailash valley. The river, thus, got the ancient name Lauhitya.

Photographed by Vikramjit Kakati. Source: Wikimedia Commons.

The powerful Brahmaputra is considered the backbone of Assam and has been at the core of Assamese folklore. Perhaps, the most abiding symbols of Hindu-Muslim synthesis are the zikirs composed by Sufi Saint, Azan Fakir in the 17th century. Many of his compositions use Hindu imagery when they refer to the harp of Kailasa or to Sankar Deva and Madhava Deva.

When it comes to Assamese literature, we can’t ignore the inspired works of Bhupen Hazarika. A line from his song Mahabahu Brahmaputra is a fitting tribute to the great river.

O great Brahmaputra!

You are the pilgrimage of the great harmony,

For ages you have been expressing

The meaning of harmony.

Contribution - Suresh yesuthasen
(Team - The Indian Me)

South Indian Arts & Crafts – Kalamkari.

Origin: Srikalahasti and Machilipatnam, Andhra Pradesh – circa: uncertain.
While Kalamkari is certainly the most ancient form of hand painting, using natural dyes on resists-dyed cloth, its antiquity is however uncertain. It is believed that the earliest fragments were found in Mohenjodaro, setting the period of origin back to the pre-Christian era. Evidence of import was also found in the excavations in Al-Fustat - the capital of ancient Egypt.

Srikalahasti kalamkari - Image source: Dolls of IndiaSrikalahasti kalamkari - Image source: Dolls of India

Literally meaning ‘Pen Craft’, the etymology of ‘Kalamkari’ can be traced to the 16th century - the period of alliance between Safavid Persian and Qutub Shahi Golconda. The Persian word ‘Kalam’ or ‘qalam’ alludes to a pen or an instrument used for painting whereas the Urdu word ‘Kari’ implies the craftsmanship involved.

Styles of Kalamkari:


Of the two distinct gharanas of Kalamkari, the Masulipatnam or Machilipatnam style has the intricate and delicate Muslim and Persian influence and has evolved to using block printing. The primary motifs are floral butas, mihrab of the mosques, the famed tree of life (cypress) and animals mentioned in the Quran and in Sufi writings. Under the Dutch and the British reigns, the art flourished and evolved to cater to their taste and Machilipatnam, being a port town, played a major role in its trade and export.

Machilipatnam kalamkari - Tree of Life – courtesy Monica Saurab

But to this day, the Srikalahasti style remains close to the original art form. The artists rely strictly on free-hand painting and the use of natural dyes. Being a temple town, this style has a religious flavour, depicting Hindu Deities and feature narratives from the epics and mythological classics.

A third traditional style is Karupur Kalamkari, which originated in Thanjavoor (Tamil Nadu) during the Maratha rule. This style is distinctly embellished with gold brocade and was mostly worn as sarees and dhotis by the royal families, during the period of Raja Serfoji and later Raja Shivaji.

Contributor Suresh Yesuthasen
(Team The Indian Me)

Rivers in Indian Literature 4 The Sarasvati.

Even though the river does not physically exist today, there are several references to the Sarasvati in the ancient Indian literature of the Vedic and post-Vedic period. It is the only river with entire hymns (6.61, 7.95 and 7.96) dedicated to it in the Rigveda.
The awe and reverence the Sarasvati inspired is best summed by the three-word tribute to her in the Rigveda - Ambitamé, the best of the mothers; Naditamé, the best of the rivers; and Devitamé, the best of the goddesses.
From his base in Kotagiri (The Nilgiris), where I hail from, Ralph T.H. Griffith had translated the Rigveda. Here are some verses, exalting the river:
Pure in her course from mountains to the ocean, alone of streams Sarasvatī hath listened.
Thinking of wealth and the great world of creatures, she poured for Nahuṣa her milk and fatness. (RV 7.95.2)

An ISRO image of River Saraswati's course

Marked out by majesty among the Mighty Ones, in glory swifter than the other rapid Streams,

Created vast for victory like a chariot, Sarasvatī must be extolled by every sage. (RV 6.59.13)

Coming together, glorious, loudly roaring - Sarasvatī, Mother of Floods, the seventh -

With copious milk, with fair streams, strongly flowing, full swelling with the volume of their water. (RV 7.36.6)

From copiousness to her drying up, we move to post-Vedic literature. According to the Mahabharata, the Sarasvati dried up in a desert at a place named Vinasana or Adarsana (MB 3.82.111; 3.130.3; 6.7.47; 6.37.1-4; 9.34.81 and 9.37.1-2); reappears in some places (MB 3.80.118); and joins the sea "impetuously" (MB 3.88.2).

We have references too in the Skanda Purana, Vamana Purana, Manu Smriti, Vasistha Dharmasutra and Baudhayana Dharmasutra.

In the literary context, it’s interesting to note that the Sarasvati is associated with speech. Such epithets as Vagdevl (goddess of speech), Jihvagravasini (dwelling in the front of the tongue), Kavijihvagravasini (she who dwells on the tongues of poets), Sabdavasini (she who dwells in sound), Vagisa (mistress of speech) and Mahavani (possessing great speech) abound.

Contribution - Suresh Yesuthasen

(Team - The Indian Me)

South Indian Arts & Crafts - Tanjore Painting.

Radhakrishna. Image source: Ajantha Arts & Crafts

Origin: Thanjavoor, Tamilnadu, India – 16^th century.

From lush green and prosperous Thanjavoor comes a vibrant and rich school of art, renowned for its gorgeous surface embellishments, striking use of vivid colours, tight compositions and breathtaking beauty. Crafted with meticulous care, Tanjore paintings are unique and captivating. The most distinguishing feature is the use of pure gold foils, precious and semi-precious stones, pearls and glass pieces. This form of art uses a combination of skills such as painting, embossing, metal patch work and overlay work. Being a complex, time consuming, laborious and expensive form of art, the rewards for such art is usually handsome.

Primarily depicting Hindu Deities, it is no wonder that the art flourished in an era when dynastic rulers built marvelous temples and patrons promoted classical traditions. The figures in these paintings are large and the faces are round and divine. Nowadays, Tanjore paintings can be seen on the walls of puja rooms and adorning drawing rooms.

The process, in brief: 

Tanjore - Vinayagam

Image source: Wikimedia Commons

♦ A cloth is pasted onto a wooden base.

♦ Chalk powder or zinc oxide is mixed with an adhesive and is applied on the base and smoothened out.

♦ A preliminary sketch is then drawn.

♦ Layers of paste (muk) made from Arabic gum and limestone are moulded and applied on the sketch to create a three-dimensional effect.

♦ Gems of varied hues, are inlaid onto this layer of paste

♦ Non-fading gold leaf is added for the dramatic effect.

♦ Colour dyes are painted on.

Contribution - SY (Team - The Indian Me)

Rivers in Indian Literature 3 The Ganga.

The mighty Ganga has a history rich in legends and myths and forms an integral part of India’s terrestrial, cultural and spiritual life. Ever since the belief that Ganga was the mother of Bhishma, the pillar of Aryan culture, she became a symbol of fertility and a Mother Goddess that nursed, reared and sustained life. Such a river, therefore, struck a chord with Indian writers. 

In Sanskrit literature, the epics and the Puranas she has been portrayed in her most magnificent form. Even though she’s referred to as a mother, she is seen as a young, beautiful and sparkling maiden, vivacious, wayward and sometimes unpredictable. While the Padma Purana mentions her as a lovely-eyed maiden, the Pranatoshni Tanta describes her as of sixteen years.

The Ganga easily lent herself to glorious poetry. There’s a flood of them – Ganga Lahiri by Jagannath Pandit, a court poet of Shah Jahan. Ganga-Varnan by Bhartendu. Ganga Tharanga by Padmakar. Nand Kishore Mishra’s Gangabharan. Ratnakar’s Gangavatra. Surdas and Tulsidas have referred to Ganga for her scenic beauty, religious fervour and symbolic reflection of life. Similies and metaphors acredit rainbow attributes to the river. This magnificence of description is not only a literary marvel but also a fitting tribute to the Holy Ganga.

Writers from different regions have hailed the Ganga too. Tukaran, amongst others, in Marathi. Subramanyam Bharati in Tamil. Vallathore in Malayalam. Bindre in Kannada. Maya Dharam Singh in Oriya. Rabindranath Tagore in ‘Jiban Smriti’ and ‘Rabindra Rachanabal’ considers the river as the sacred thread of Indian Yajna, a thread connecting memories of wisdom, religion and meditation. The flow of the Ganga in itself is an introduction to India. 
Kenya-born G.V. Desani bursts into rhapsody, “Blessed be her stars and the little crescent moon, caressed by her waves, the deathless spirit of the beautiful Ganga too sleeps.”

Contributed by Suresh Yesuthasen

Rivers in Indian Literature 2 RigVeda

Just like the seven seas, the Rig Veda refers to the seven rivers or Sapthasindhu. It is believed that these are the five rivers of Punjab (Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej), Indus and Sarasvati.

The liberation of sapthasindhu by Indra, the God of Rain, through the slaying of Vritra (literally, the obstacle) has been gloriously encapsulated in verse – Book 1, Hymn XXXII. Indra. 

Here’s a translation by Ralph T.H. Griffith:
1 I will declare the manly deeds of Indra, the first that he achieved, the Thunder-wielder.
He slew the Dragon, then disclosed the waters, and cleft the channels of the mountain torrents.

 10 Rolled in the midst of never-ceasing currents flowing without a rest for ever onward.
The waters bear off Vrtra's nameless body: the foe of Indra sank to during darkness.

 12 A horse's tail wast thou when he, O Indra, smote on thy bolt; thou, God without a second,
Thou hast won back the kine, hast won the Soma; thou hast let loose to flow the Seven Rivers.

 It should be known that there is an entire ‘Hymn of Praise of Rivers’, the “Nadistuti Sukta”. Book 10, Hymn 75, is important for the reconstruction of the geography of the Vedic Civilisation. 

 Sindhu (the Indus) is addressed as the mightiest of rivers and mentioned specifically in verses 1, 2, 7, 8 and 9. Verse 5 enumerates ten rivers, beginning with Ganga and moving westwards:

 O Ganga, Yamuna, Sarasvati, Shutudri (Sutlej), Parushni (Iravati, Ravi), follow my praise! 
O Asikni (Chenab) Marudvridha, Vitasta (Jhelum), with the Arjikiya (Haro) and Sushoma (Sohan), listen! 

 The Sarasvati is hailed as ámbitame nádītame dévitame sárasvati, "best mother, best river, best goddess" (2.41.16). Praise for her is succinct: "is pure in her course from the mountains to the sea" (7.95.2) and that she “poured milk and ghee” (8.21.18).
Contributed by Suresh Yesuthasen

Rivers in Indian Literature 1

Historically, it was flowing water sources that made ancient civilisations thrive, not merely human intervention. All the great civilisations and human habitations were located along the rivers. Agrarian and artisan communities needed them for sustenance and traders, for transportation. Very early, these rivers proved highly inspirational to the writer. While inspiration brought about glorious fiction and fantasy, facts gave us detailed historical works.

Right from the Vedas and Epics, Indian Literature has found ample space for rivers. It’s not just the metaphorical usage of riverine characteristics that have inspired writers and poets, but river as central to narrative. To life, conflict, romance and more.

Rivers have offered tremendous narrative scope. The strip of water has provided effective division between communities in bitter conflict; building up to angry waters rising and swallowing up people, in the climax. Love never used other geographical features as effectively as the river. Crossing a river meant hope; especially when the protagonist took a boat across to a distant city, to earn and fend for his impoverished family. The river brought in good cheer, through the trader - the harbinger of news, while he sold trinkets to giggling little girls. Right from the legendary Saraswati to the mighty Ganga to the scenic Bharathapuzha, in Kerala to the fictional Chevathar (David Davidar’s The House of Blue Mangoes), Indian writers have found in rivers a grounded reality for all ages and sexes unlike the narrative the mighty ocean offers.
The river...
...She flows through Indian Literature with such ease. And, we’ve all experienced the glorious use of several river settings.

 Contribution by Suresh Yesuthasen